Information About the Great Depression, New Deal, the Great Society, and the War on Poverty Essay

The Great Depression was a time of great suffering in American history. Remarkably it was a time that marked the American people and the country was able to emerge shining and stronger than ever. The Great Depression began in 1929 when in the month of October the stock market crashed and fourteen billion dollars were lost. In just one week, thirty billion dollars were gone. This loss was so monumental because it was ten times the average annual budget of the United States. The depression struck hard at all the industries in the United States. This left thousands and thousands of people jobless and even homeless. The first industries to be affected were construction and production. Soon after, the agricultural industry was hit hard. Over 750,000 farms were lost due to how the price of crops dropped drastically which ended up bankrupting the farmers. The unemployment rate was at 25%, the highest ever in American history. The population took yet another devastating blow with lack of food and illness due to inability to pay for medical care. President Hoover lost the election to Franklin D. Roosevelt because the American public considered Hoover to be incapable of handling the crisis. The Great Depression ended up carrying on until the second world war. Recently the United States faced something very close to the Great Depression. The stock market crashed again and millions of jobs were lost. Prices rose and Americans were headed for a slump that would take a long time to recover from. Ever so slowly the economy began to move forward again. But to this day the economy is still crippled and the American people are still paying for it. The New Deal was a series of economic programs that were implemented in the United States between 1933 and 1936. The man responsible for the New Deal was none other than Franklin D. Roosevelt. The New Deal was a response to the Great Depression and mainly focused on Relief for the unemployment and the poor, Recovery of the economy, and Reform of the financial system to prevent another depression. These three R’s were what drove it to be approved by Congress. The New Deal managed to decrease unemployment greatly by the 1940’s and put out many different programs and organizations that are still present today that help move the United States forward. The main focus of President Kennedy’s administration was to confront poverty. Kennedy began by putting 2 billion dollars to urban renewal and gave federal rewards to companies who moved to the newly renewed areas. The War on Poverty was a governmental effort to stop the problem of persistent poverty in the U.S. the poverty rate in the U.S. was at 24%. In 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson declared a metaphorical war on poverty and new plans and programs were put out to help the poverty rate. The Great Society began when Johnson defeated the Republicans in 1964. His agenda consisted of taking care of the matters of discrimination, poverty, education, healthcare, housing, and consumer and environmental protections. The â€Å"Great Society† was a set of domestic programs promoted by Johnson and the Democrats. The Elementary & Secondary Schools Act passed in 1965 was the first time the federal government was involved in public education. It gave government funds to high risk schools. The Higher Education Act put forth new buildings, programs, scholarships, and grants. The National Housing Act if 1968 increased low income housing by 1.7 million. The Civil Rights movement was an important time during American history. It was a time where American minorities conducted protested that won them rights and put a stop to racism in the United States. monumental individuals like Martin Luther King and Malcolm X helped a lot in spreading the word about racial equality. The African American communities all around the country protested for equality. Some whites went to extremes and resorted to violence that led to many murders of the African American people and even the assassination of Martin Luther King. The Native Americans also had an influential movement where they seized Alcatraz and occupied it. Their motive was to protest the first discovery of America and to establish a native American identity. Meanwhile the fastest growing minority in the United States, the Latinos, were also trying to establish equality.

Bioinformatics: BioEdit

One of the primary needs of man, in terms of the cognitive and psychological aspects of life, is to understand himself and other forms of life in order to determine each other’s role and place as inhabitants on earth with unique physiological, anatomical, and most importantly in this case, biological features which exhibit major differences from each other, setting the stage for discovering the quintessential facets of life.This particular need of man had been provided for due to the capacity of Science and Technology to allow him to obtain relevant and comprehensive facts that are rational and quantifiable in nature to develop an organized body of knowledge that provides reliable and valid information about human life, as well as other species on the planet, particularly on the measure of how life is formed, transformed, and reproduced.Under these pretexts, the importance of information is framed pertaining to its connection with the field of biology, specifically under the f ramework of Molecular Biology, Genetics, Computer Science, IT, and Statistics. (Ramsden, 2004) Aside from the purpose of collating reliable and valid information to provide man with an open access to facts or data for the purpose of cognitive enlightenment and sustenance of psychological needs, and so on, solving various issues and problems confronting man and other species on earth may also be addressed through the information-gathering process.Not only does it contribute to the field of Molecular Biology or Genetics for instance, but the processes of obtaining pertinent and comprehensive data are advantageous in addressing concerns in various fields, including Health Care and Medicine, Farming, Agriculture and environmental concerns, Nutrition, Food Processing and Production, and so on. (Hyman, 2003) The process of resolving these multiple issues that affect almost all major fields or industries start by focusing attention on gathering and analyzing information which may be initia lly categorized under Molecular Biology, and then subsequently, Genetics.The next step constitutes the synthesis and organization of information in order to develop theoretical approaches and practical strategies for problem-solving purposes. However, positioning the theoretical framework of Molecular Biology into practical environments and realizing its purpose of obtaining information to contribute to various fields and industries have never been easy. One should not expect that gathering information from various life forms is a trouble-free task.Since molecular and biological information covers a vast scope, (Bommarius & Riebel, 2004) and information obtained requires meaningful, factual, and systematic observations, interpretations, analyses, and synthesis, the necessity for developing a tool or a system to manage the various processes involved, such as the information-gathering, the storage and retrieval of data, the management of data, and so on, (Ramsden, 2004) was realized.T hrough the fusion of technology, particularly Information Technology or IT, Computer Science, Statistics, and Molecular Biology, Bioinformatics came about addressing problems that challenged the informational system of Biology. With the development of Bioinformatics, scientists, particularly molecular biologists and geneticists, have founded an efficient way to create a database of pertinent information obtained under the application of Molecular Biology since its inception, wherein facts and data gathered may be stored and organized for future access or retrieval.(Ramsden, 2004) Moreover, through services provided by Bioinformatics, it allows scientists to organize and synthesize information meaningfully for rational and relevant evaluations and assessments of facts in order to arrive at substantial results that lead to the formation of sound conclusions and generalizations. Bioinformatics therefore focus on the organization of facts and data, the synthesis of this information to d evelop bodies of knowledge, and finally, the evaluation and assessment of facts or data in order to formulate pertinent theories and strategies in addressing biological concerns across multiple disciplines.(Bommarius & Riebel, 2004) With these information on Bioinformatics in mind, the remainder of this discussion shall be devoted to discussing the history of Bioinformatics, the role of Computer Science, Information Technology, Molecular Biology, and Statistics in the development, sustenance, functioning, and efficiency of Bioinformatics, and an evaluation of a Bioinformatics tool or software in relation to its goals or objectives, its interface, available application features and characteristics, additional services, and so on.A SHORT HISTORY IN BIOINFORMATICS Due to the influx of information from numerous research studies conducted by scientists under the coverage of Molecular Biology, the ongoing process has fueled the need for the development of a system that shall be able to or ganize and collate information – that is, Bioinformatics.From Tiselius’ design of the process of electrophoresis, to the development of the alpha-helix by Pauling and Corey, and consequently the improvement of Pauling and Corey’s model to the double-helix by Watson and Crick, developments on protein crystallography, the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network or ARPANET, the creation of molecular models, and so on, these various events and situations were taken collectively developing the need and recommendation for the creation of a model or framework that will handle information simultaneously, efficiently, and reliably.(Sadek, 2004) From the developments and discoveries of new information based on the processes and techniques employed in the field of Molecular Biology, supported by the attention and interest granted to computers and technology during the eighties because of the dawn of the era of technology, the role of Bioinformatics was re alized, emphasized, and consequently developed. Scientists, as well as various organizations, industries, academic institutions, and such, have continued to develop and improve Bioinformatics.The results constitute the engineering of various applications or softwares since the concept of Bioinformatics was framed during the seventies. Each program or application that was structured were designed to carry out multifarious and specific tasks and responsibilities including DNA sequencing or mapping, the organization of data according to priorities, use, needs, concerns, problems, etc. Some of these applications or softwares include the PC/GENE, PROSITE, SEQANALREF, etc.(Agarwal, 200-) At present time, Bioinformatics continue to evolve and develop as man consciously obtains more complex information and experience developments from previous knowledge and established theories or concepts. In addition, as numerous problems and conflicts related to Biology and its practical application incl uding lessons or concepts arise, Bioinformatics as a practical and essential field in Science and Technology will continue to look for solutions in order to address these concerns.The changing landscape of society, particularly its move from traditionalism and individualism to modernization and globalization, influences changes and transformations in Bioinformatics. BIOINFORMATICS: Molecular Biology, Computer Science, IT, and Statistics In order to deeply understand how Bioinformatics work, we need to go over the structure and features of the subfields that it constitutes, such as Molecular Biology, Computer Science, IT, and Statistics. Molecular Biology is a branch of Science that deals with the analysis of various molecules within living things in general.Various types of cells from man, animals, and plants are studied and analyzed in order to determine molecular compositions, and consequently learn determine their structures and compositions, their reactions to other molecules an d substances found within living things, their functions and contributions to human life, or life in general including plants and animals, and so on. Molecular Biology also studies Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA compositions of living things as they contribute knowledge and information on Genetics.This particular aspect focuses on structuring how molecules reproduce through DNA replication within a cell. (Hyman, 2003) Computer Science and IT are both products of the fusion between Science and Technology. They function because of the build-up of information that constitutes Molecular Biology for the purposes of quantifying and qualifying facts and data into meaningful sequences, models, or formations that may be interpreted, analyzed, and synthesized.Some of the specific contributions of Computer Science and IT include the storage, construction, and reconstruction of DNA sequences, a thorough genome analysis by accessing various related information in databases managed by IT, the const ruction of graphic organizers or visual representations of information for clarity and direct presentation of facts, the timely and efficient transfer and receipt of information across databases and information systems, and the collation of variable information about protein sequences. (Keedwell & Narayanan, 2005)Statistics, as a mathematical and scientific approach to analyzing and interpreting data, contributes to Bioinformatics by allowing scientists to test the weight or magnitude of information and provide quantifiable data that may be interpreted according to established standards or guidelines. Information, facts, or data, obtained through experiments and consequently, the findings obtained by molecular biologists from thorough analysis and evaluation an in depth research studies are labeled with values leading to the formulation of estimates, predictions, or likelihoods of the occurrence of various phenomena.Moreover, Statistics is important in allowing computers and various technologies to determine how facts or data are to be translated in order to arrive at scientific conclusions of generalizations. (Ramsden, 2004) By and large, the unique features and contributions of these fields in Science, Technology, and Mathematics, meld together in order to build the foundations of Bioinformatics.Information from Molecular Biology are utilized and transformed to numerical data through Statistics, and both informational statements and figures are stored in computers and other technologies including IT systems or processes, IT functions, standards, guidelines, etc. for easy access and retrieval, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation, and are consequently managed through IT systems and processes. BIOEDITBioEdit is a software application made available for Windows Operating Systems that is used to reconstruct how DNA, nucleic acids, and amino acids are arranged in order to follow the superlative sequence of these substances based on rules and standards derived from previous studies and analyses by molecular biologists and geneticists. Aside from these functions, BioEdit also runs to provide users with graphic simulators that construct drawings or illustrations, chartings and mappings, etc. , BLAST searches, and alignments.(Salemi & Vandamme, 2003 and Tsai, 2002) Coverage and Value of BioEdit to Bioinformatics The study of Molecular Biology necessitates the in depth analysis and evaluation of molecules and their various compositions found in living things, particularly proteins or amino acids which were then identified to be the edifices of life. As time passed, molecular biologists realized the importance of going beyond the study of protein or amino acid structures, and focus on DNA and other nucleic acids which map out how life is formed, transformed, or reproduced.The study of the two most important molecular structures in living things – amino acids and nucleic acids – forms the foundation of Molecular Biology, as well a s Genetics, as fields of science. (Horobin, 2003) In studying these acids, molecular biologists and geneticists need to determine their composition, structures, and sequences in order to identify how they are formed and identify their respective roles in building life. (Horobin, 2003) For the purpose of deeply understanding the importance of sequencing and realignment in Molecular Biology, as well as Genetics, we will focus on the subject of DNA.Molecular Biologists and Geneticists utilize the process of DNA sequencing by following established methodologies and standards. Because of enormous funding obtained from both public and private sectors that are extremely interested in advancing the field of genome sequencing, particularly for purposes of genetic modification and cloning, the DNA sequencing methodology has been continuously evolving in order to adapt new findings and trends that raise its reliability, validity, and efficiency. (Griffin & Griffin, 1994)Sequencing and realignm ent of data and samples help Molecular Biologists and Geneticists create various patterns of DNA links or formation, assemble or disassemble structures for a deeper or more thorough analysis, create a map or graphic organizer which will instantly illustrate how enzymes or other substances are formed from base samples such as DNA, analyses of DNA samples and sequences in order to predict outcomes in protein formation, analyses of protein or amino acids in order to determine their specific features or characteristics, look for other structures or sequences within the database with similar characteristics and formations with the sample, and consequently aligning similar structures or sequences together in order to predict reactions, growth and development, and so on. (Griffin & Griffin, 1994)Results from the sequencing, alignment, or realignment processes that are primary accomplished by resorting to bioinformatics tools such as BioEdit, constitute the information for proper DNA sequen ces in order to identify anomalies or flaws in other models or structures. This is most important in the field of medicine and health because it helps professionals determine serious diseases or illnesses that might be passed on through heredity, varying genes in order to alter anomalies or flaws within its structures, and such. Sequences and alignments also help further genetic cloning because it provides relevant information on how life may be reproduced in the process. Other practical uses of DNA sequencing and alignment include the improvement product formation, by determining how the formation of genes may be developed gearing towards constructiveness, particularly in the food industry. (Walker & Rapley, 2000)BioEdit, as a tool for sequencing and aligning various molecules or substances such as DNA, nucleic acids, amino acids, etc. , is therefore extremely important in the realization of the goals of Molecular Biology and Genetics. Through its comprehensive services and feature s aside from sequencing and aligning, the application is able to help molecular biologists and geneticists thoroughly analyze sequences for various purposes aforementioned, consequently advancing not only their respective fields but other scientific industries as well including health care and medicine, psychology and behavior, farming and agriculture, food processing and production, genetics, etc. BioEdit: The ApplicationBioEdit is available for free download from various online sources offering different versions, including tutorials and general databases for the purpose of comparing sequences. For this reason, BioEdit appears to be instrumental in one’s accomplishment of various tasks and responsibilities that are associated to the study of DNA, amino acids, nucleic acids, etc. because the software is readily available for users who need access to such Bioinformatics tools. In addition, there are several online tutorials that will help one in learning how to use the applic ation appropriately and efficiently. For this particular evaluation, BioEdit 7. 0. 9 was used and downloaded from http://www. mbio. ncsu.edu/BioEdit/BioEdit. html. (Hall, 2007) Although there are online tutorials available for new users, handling BioEdit is quite difficult. One cannot easily use BioEdit the first time because there is a need to go over terminologies, exploring the functions and requirements of running BioEdit. For instance, the Accessory Application tab contains various commands or protocols that are unfamiliar to new users, unless they have comprehensive experiences in handling other applications or programs with similar interface. In order to begin working with BioEdit, one must know what BLAST is, CAP or Contig Assembly Program, a Protein Distance Matrix, and so on.Moreover, there is a need for new users to familiarize themselves with various goals and objectives that should be accomplished in using BioEdit in order to determine which tools found in the tabs shal l be used and how databases shall be drawn from the World Wide Web for thorough analysis, alignment, or comparison of sequences. One beneficial attribute of BioEdit include the availability of links to online sets that provide databases such as the Vector Database, the PHYLIP Homepage, the RNase P Database, and so on. In addition, BioEdit allows users to utilize sequences in various formats and read and access numerous sequences that may be imported from other sources. BioEdit does not also limit users to the built-in services that come with the download of the program because it opens itself to upgrades by downloading other complementary or helper applications.When it comes to the actual utilization of tools offered by the BioEdit becomes highly useful because it is able to carry out basic tasks, such as editing of sequences from samples, translating the compositions and formation of sequences, the alignment of sequences to multiple sources, and so on. Although the BioEdit is quite difficult to use in the beginning, going over tutorials and Read Me files from online websites is useful in order to familiarize oneself with the interface of the program. Moreover, it offers various tools that completes several tasks and provides access to numerous databases that may be used for many purposes. The following screenshots were obtained from the website wherein BioEdit was used to fulfill various tasks and functions including Split alignment, Hydrophobicity Plots, and Plasmid drawing and annotation. (Hall, 2007)

Importance of Early Childhood Education Essay

With the economy currently in such a terrible position now it is’s no wonder why that people everywhere are being laid off, and companies around both the country and the world are jobs are laying off and choosing to keep staff to a minimum. Unfortunately, the positions that are kept are held by those who have the educational background that has essentially securedd their position from the beginning. There once was a time where an individual could apply for a job and their lack of educational experience was not held against them, but. N now, it seems as if there are extremely few reputable jobs are ooffered where only a high school diploma and some college is sufficient. But However, the economy is not who shouldto be blamed. The question instead that we should be asking that should be asked is, â€Å"where does it start? † Although it is understood that education is needed to surpass stay ahead throughout our lifeves, the importance of early education is frequently overlooked. Childhood education, as in Pre-Kindergarten thru fifth grade, is not about learning the simple or basic parts of education, but instead rather itsis about introducing young children’s minds to new and more complex things that will prepare them for a successful future. Some may choose to believe that pushing a child to learn a multitude of things at a young age would be considered cruel. Some may also believe that spending too much time learning would take away a child’s â€Å"childhood,† and that children should be allowed to stay children for as long as possible. , and should be allowed to play as much as possible. On theWhile the importance of imaginative play is alsovery important,contrary, if you were to analyzeing the circumstances it makes it would be clear as to why so many children have chosen a path of uncertainty in education. For example, take a five year old child who is being introduced to school for the first time. He or she would learn the basics; counting, coloring, reciting the ABC’s. Now take a child who has been introduced to a pre school program (normally around the age of four) as similar to that ofin First Step or Head Start. By the time that child will have entered into Kindergarten he/ or she will have already been introduced to a level of learning that is above any child that has not take advantage advantage of early learning programs. Thise will enable them to excel above their classmates. Children’s minds are truly like sponges; when a child is still young their mind’s this should be the time when their minds sshould be â€Å"crammed† with an abundance of knowledge. Sean Brotherson, a family science specialist, gives the example of a child’s brain being like a house that has just been built. He says, the walls are up and the doors are hung. You bring supplies to the new house and set them on the floor, but they will not work until everything is wired and hooked up. He goes on to explains, â€Å"wWhileexplain, â€Å"while learning later is possible, it usually is slower and more difficult. Some improvement in most skills is possible throughout life. However, providing children with the best opportunity for learning and growth during the periods when their minds are most ready to absorb new information is important†. From the time a child is born he/she is learning. A disinterest in learning at an early age is something that may follow him or her throughoutu their school age life, and is something that can haunt them for their entire lives and may hinder their ability to succeed in the real world. If a child shows no interest in adding and subtracting from the very beginning, it’s is often likely that child will continue thru school disliking Mmath throughout school. . and that This is something that can hold a child back from their potential. It also started at a young age. Children need to believe that learning is fun and, at the right age, is something that can help them progress farther. in life. In most Pre-Kindergarten classes in the United States, children are being taught to button their clothes, tie their shoes, or count to ten, and introduced to letters and shapes for the first time. These are all good tools to learn, just not in school. If you were to look at schools in other countries, they are far beyond what the U. S. is teaching our Preschoolers. Elaine Wu, with The Kapi’o Newspress, did an article on the failing education in the U. S. She found that according to a study done by UNICEF, the U. S. was failing when it came to international education rankings. Studies showed that other nations in the â€Å"developed† world had a more effective education systemsmore effective education systems. How wrong could it be to give our children a little more to think about, or giving them a problem that may take a little longer to solve?. Being that the children that attended my hHigh sSchool were approximately 75% mMilitary â€Å"brats,† it wasn’t not rare to have a new kid transfer in. There were kids from all places over the world but the ones that stood out were the ones from different countries. I took special interest in where they came from, but what interested me more was the fact that they were being placed into mostly advanceds classes. So with that curiosity I would start a conversation, usually beginning with â€Å"where are you from†? aAnd usually often times they were from another country or from somewhere where education was an important factor in their community. I am now 26 years old and am finally deciding to finish school. Things like what I just described makes me wonder about the course my life has taken. ifIf I had beenwere pushed into the books and encouraged to learn when I was younger would my outcome in school be different?. Here is another example. I look at my I have a fourteen year old nephew who is now in 9th grade. He is a straight A student and plays basketball (coincidently at my same high school). His grades are monitored by his parents but the transition wasn’t was not always easy. He came from New Orleans, Louisiana, where he lived with his mother. New , whichOrleans has one of the worst school systems in America so his early education was a struggle. When he moved to Hampton, trying to get him to open a book and study was next to impossible but. Wwith a lot of perseverance he now knows how important school is and where it can take you. But imagine if he had beenwas excited to learn from the beginning. If he had been given the opportunity, the transition may have been easier. I am now 26 years old and am finally deciding to finish school. Things like what I just described makes me wonder about the course my life has taken. If I had been pushed into the books and encouraged to learn when I was younger, would my outcome in school be different? I don’t expect society’s children to be building rocket ships at the age of eight. But putting more thought in to teaching children things that broaden their minds wouldn’t be such a bad thing. WWork Cited Brotherson, Sean. â€Å"Growth of the Mind†. Online posting. August 2001. www. nbsu. com Wu, Elaine. â€Å"Failing America†. Kapi’o Newspress. 25 April 2001 .

Land law assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Land law assignment - Essay Example Restrictive covenants only exist where there is a negative duty on the owner of the covenanted land5. In this instance the duty is a negative duty6 as the restrictions applied by the covenant state that no work can be carried out on the pigs cannot be kept on the land and not to use the land for any form of business In order for a restrictive covenant to be binding on successive owners of the land the covenant must be recorded on the register as a minor interest. If the covenant is not recorded in this way then the new purchasers take the property free of all the agreed covenants7. Baroness Whinge could assert that the benefit of the restrictive covenant has passed to her land and that she intends to enforce this covenant. It is important to note that covenants are only binding between the parties to the contract and cannot bind third parties8. This would mean that the covenant between Baroness Whinge and Lord Stubborn. If the wording of the covenant includes their successors-in-title9 the implication of this is that the original parties have promised that all future owners will observe the covenants. When Lord Stubborn started using the land in this way Michael would effectively be held to be in breach of the covenant10. Michael could ensure that the covenants are kept by successive owners by getting a covenant from them to indemnify him against any liability he might incur if the covenants are breached. Section 78 of the Law of Property Act 1925 entitles the new owners to claim for breaches against any successors-in-title if it can be established that the benefit of the covenant has become part of the land. The claims would not be against the new owners but the original parties to the covenant unless a covenant had been made between the original parties and the new owners11. As Lord Stubborn was not made aware of the covenants it

First Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

First Exam - Essay Example In addition, peoples understanding of minority groups is often based on the experience of minority males, and the experience of minority females are much less known and recorded(21). Though both minorities have been hushed, those of female minorities are the worst affected as they have been totally silenced. Prejudice involves an individual thinking negatively of other groups in negative ways, attaches negative emotions, and prejudges individuals based on their group memberships. Every form of prejudice, even the most ancient, started at some point in history. A common factor that is critical in the origin of prejudice is a contest between groups (23). Prejudice originates in the center of that competition and is used to justify and rationalize the advantaged class of the winning set. History gives examples of one group dominating and takes resources from, or eliminates a threat from some other group that becomes a minority group. Prejudice helps mobilize emotional energy for the contest; justify rejection and attack as well as rationalizes the structures of domination such as slavery or segregation. Groups react to the competition and all threats presented by other groups. The link between prejudice and competition has been exhibited in differing settings and circumstances that range f rom labor strikes to the international war. In 1950s, an experiment was conducted to illustrate group competition and prejudice. It was conducted on 11 and 12 years old boys at a summer camp called Robber’s cave. The boys were split into two factions classified as the Rattlers and the eagles and lived in separate cabins. They were frequently pitted beside each other in various activities based on a competitive basis. The boys from each group developed and expressed damaging feelings towards the other group. The strength of this is that it helps to mobilize feelings and justify

Race and ethnicity College Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Race and ethnicity College - Essay Example In other words, sociologists consider that physical marks reflect not the objective reality, but subjective attitude. According to Robert Park (1964, pp. 237-239, 315), a racial mark has become the symbol of the suspense, in the ground of which has laid the sense of self-vulnerability. He writes that a sociologist is interested not in physical distinctions, differentiating one race from another, but in less evident lineaments of inner apprehensions. And physical distinctions are just the symbols of these inner apprehensions. Park claims that historical process in the issue is predetermined by the ideological factors, not by the biological ones. The more important is to realize what people believe in and look for, than to know who they are. In other words modern sociologists, considering race as an artificial construct and one of means of creation and description the identity, emphasize that race remains to be rather important notion, which determines and legalizes social and political actions of people. At the same time they are sure that race is a product of racism, and not contrariwise. From this point of view groups, which are called racial, turn out to be racialised. It means that social, political, or economical state of these groups is described with the help of racial categories. A lot of A lot of scholars for decades have oppugned against scientific racism, which has tried to ground the idea of racial inequality. They have proved that human capabilities do not depend on the colour of the skin or type of eyes. One of the most outstanding representatives of this stream is Ashley Montague (1952), who from 1940s has insisted that race is just a scientific phantom. However a lot of scholars as before have considered race and ethnos as some biological reality, underestimating the paramount role of social factor. Nonetheless some of these scholars have understood that race is rather social construct then the biological reality, and that the concept of race implicates relationship of dominance and submission. The development of genetic studies has approved that several different genes determine so-called 'racial marks'. This fact has originated the basis for the true scientific approach and has given a possibility to claim that there are no races, only clines (Livingstone, 1962). During last decades this approach has been widely accepted by majority of scholars. During 1960 - 1980 it has been noticed some decline and loss of interest in studying the concept of race. In the mean time we have to confess that unfortunately even in the twenty first century mankind failed to get rid of racism. Just the other way round during last decades of the twentieth century it has got the new, even more 'fastidious' forms. As a result it has become very difficult for scholars to define the notion of 'racism'. And what even worst is that modern racists make use of such uncertainty and declare themselves as intransigent fighters against racism. It should be said that contemporary criminal justice turned out to be just not ready to such metamorphoses of racism. Modern antiracists very often fall short of knowledge about its essence and history, and accordingly they do not take into consideration significant peculiarities, which can be very helpful in struggling against it. In fact antiracism time and again is based on the same prejudices

Humanties 3 Discussion 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Humanties 3 Discussion 1 - Essay Example Moreover, focus on the scientific discovery that resulted to industrial revolution made steady alteration on the prevailing economic structure in the western world. The main ideas and inspiration behind the Neoclassicism were music and theater, which were either principally or impassive form. Qualities that are emphasized by corresponding Romantic style were strong emotion, admiration of nature and break from corresponding subsequent inflexible structure (Janson & Anthony, 234-367). Artists within the Realist duration mainly conveyed a ingenuous and objective vision in regard to the contemporary life. Work of art from Neoclassicism is Painting that mainly corresponded with the underlying 18th century enlightenment epoch and extended in the early 19th century (Janson & Anthony, 234-367). Neoclassical painting is mainly characterized by utilization of straight lines, smooth paint surface, and minimal utilization of color, illustration of underlying light and corresponding distinct, crunchy description of the forms. Moreover, Neoclassicism was mainly procreated from corresponding methods within the Paris in regard to the underlying history

Marriage versus living together Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marriage versus living together - Essay Example The present tendency of the youngsters is for advocating the notion of living together. This research analyses the major differences between these two. Moreover the various aspects of both marriage and living together are put forward to stand that both are different in its inherent meanings. Marriage has been a strong ritualistic ceremony to tie a woman with a man and thereby establishing family in the society. It has become a strong agency in society for the overall developments of the younger ones. Marriage aims at the unification of two- a male and a female-who constitute the aspect of family. Marriage has both social and moral contract in the society. Marriages are not fruitful always. The situation of a man or a woman living with another person without knowing much of other person has turned failures in marriages. This has led another notion of living together, though it has no legal and social acceptability. It was difficult for the couples to divorce if any discrepancy existed between the two. The complex nature of marriage has also paved way for the growth of living together in the society. A man living with a woman can understand that person well and this can lead to the marriage of both. It has been considered by many as the pre-requisite for marriage. It is less complicated and easy functioning.

Analysis Of A Health Care Organization Research Paper

Analysis Of A Health Care Organization - Research Paper Example This subsequently helps them in enhancing social, mental, spiritual and physical well-being. Following are the organization’s core values (Mission Statement and Guiding Values, 2014): †¢ Showing love and compassion. †¢ Recognizing the dignity and value of every individual as per the religious commandments. †¢ Enabling people to spend a healthy life in terms of soul, mind, and body. †¢ Serving people belonging to every ethnicity, religion, culture, socioeconomic status and gender within the community. †¢ Connecting community with individuals in order to increase the reach of organizational services. †¢ Valuing resources that God has given such as time, financial resources, talent, and humans. The organization has a very distinct philosophy of care which compels it to extend its services to other communities as well. They believe in the protection of fundamental human rights while recognizing that spiritual health requires as much care as the physical health. In order to implement this philosophy, they have established equitable, accessible and ethical health care facilities for patients coming to them. Apart from this, Adventist Whole Health Network’s goal is to meet faith related issues of the community members while also advocating and training them towards a better lifestyle (Faith Community Nursing, 2014). The organizational structure initiates with the board of directors whereas all the community projects are completed with the collaborative efforts of staff members including doctors and nurses.

Influence of Music Essay Example for Free

Influence of Music Essay Music and radio has roots in American culture and the way society is today. The different types of music genres have shaped American culture and social behavior of Americans. Audio media has had a major affect and influence on the attitudes of Americans and especially today’s youth and young adults. Music and radio has given American culture its values, the way that jazz, blues, and RB created rock roll, music created American culture. Music appeals to young adults, and youth as an escape to the hard times of real life. Drawn by the explicit lyrics and beats, the youth always searches out for music to dance to and music to connect with. American culture has been steadily changing due to music and what is known as pop culture. The need to be accepted in a certain social group has a lot to do with music. Music brought a cultural shift in the race segregation, black artists playing music with white artists and for mixed audiences. American culture before the 50’s was a strict segregation culture and music allowed for the barrier to be broken. Artists using sexual innuendoes and other antics changed what was the norm of morals and values and put a more â€Å"lax† outlook on such things. Music has influenced the openness of sexuality and sexual orientation. More and more artists are open about their sexuality, making it more of a normal thing in American Culture. Being gay used to be shunned, and now it is openly celebrated. All of these things are because of music. The radio started playing what was known as â€Å"race† music on white stations and this made it so a lot of different Americans can hear and be exposed to a broad range of music. Becoming more acceptable rock and roll, punk, and hip hop have had an impact on the teens and young adults of American culture. The 80’s brought the rebelliousness out of teens with punk rock music, while the 90’s hip-hop has had a big effect on fashion and attitudes of people. Music has shaped American culture in many ways, a way of expressing one’s opinions and bringing groups of people together with similar ideals and opinions. A way of bringing what was different cultures together and making one culture, The American Culture. Rock and Roll is a genre of music that has forever changed the social behavior of Americans. Rock and roll has influenced American culture in the daily life, fashion and attitudes of most Americans. Rock and Roll broke the race barricade, forming in a time of a civil rights movement. Rock and roll was a new form of music that encouraged desegregation. Evolving black artists and white artists playing black music, rock and roll changed the way American culture accepts what was once taboo. Rock and roll put a perception of sex, drugs, and alcohol to be accepted and what is considered â€Å"cool†. Artists singing about doing drugs, or hooking up with random woman made it something to be idolized. Rock and roll influenced young adults to engage in risky behavior. Now is American culture, these things are almost considered normal. Rock and roll shaped fashion and is continuously changing fashion. Fans copy styles of their favorite artists as a way to express one’s self. From ripped up, tight, or baggy pants, long hair, colored hair, or shaved heads, the fashion is always changing. Some fashions coming back and making another appearance in American culture, a lot of fashion comes from Rock and roll. Piercings and tattoos once forbidden, is becoming more and more acceptable in American culture. It is not strange to see business people and stay at home moms with tattoos. Rock and roll has influenced this change in American culture and tattoos are â€Å"normal†. Rock and roll artists have changed the way sexuality and sexual orientation is looked at. Rock and roll has made it okay to be gay and okay to dress how someone wants. Rock and roll has given the care-free attitude to young adults. American culture has changed into a â€Å"screw society, morals and values† type of attitude, based on what rock and roll has made society. Rock and roll has given a sense of community to certain groups of people who share ideals and values, and brings them together into a certain setting. Rock and roll has had a major effect on social behavior of Americans and American culture. Music does affect social behavior and attitudes of Americans. Music gives people an outlet to express their opinions. Audio media has links to American cultures in every decade, changing and molding American into what it is today. Since the 1700’s even, people have sought out music as a way to connect to others. Audio media is an ever changing thing, which will always reflect on the social behavior and attitudes of Americans.

Consumer Shopping Decisions and Behaviour

Consumer Shopping Decisions and Behaviour Literature Review Introduction Satisfaction of consumer needs and wants is the definitive goal for triumph in business. Hence, an effectual marketing strategy must spotlight on serving consumers/customers better than the competitors. The marketing manager should be interested in revealing the complexities of an individual buyer, the dynamics of consumer behavior and should also try to understand consumers individual differences so that he/she can segment the total market in terms of those differences Nisel (2001). Buyer decision making should be carefully studied by organizations and marketing managers to have a full understanding of how buyers obtain information, how they form their beliefs, and what specific product-choice criteria are sued by customers. Specific products/services can then be cultivated that will fulfill the appropriate requirements of these groups. Therefore, finding the motives that lead to differences in consumers decision-making processes is a critical factor for a company in accomplishing i ts marketing objectives in order to satisfy its customers Nisel (2001). Differences in consumers decision-making processes can aid the managers in classifying individuals into meaningful homogeneous subgroups. Olson Peter, 1994 defined consumer behaviour as â€Å"the dynamic interaction of affect and cognition, behaviour and environmental events by which human beings conduct the exchange aspects of their lives.† Every organization is interested in consumer behaviour for the sake of strategizing and streamlining their marketing mix to meeting the needs of their target market. Business entities have special interest in consumer behaviour for the reason that they can develop marketing strategies to induce consumers to purchase their products based on consumer research and analysis. For a company’s marketing strategy to hit the success mark, it will largely depend on how well the strategy is tailor measured to buyers needs and wants and how these buyers react to the strategy. Companies can find out what satisfies their customers by mandating their marketers to examine the main influences on what, where, when and how customers buy goods and services Dibb et al (2001). When these factors are well understood, companies through their  marketers can better be able to predict how consumers will respond to the marketing strategies of the firm. In the null shell, the information gathered through the market research and analysis will position the firm to compete more effectively in the marketplace, afford it will greater market share and better customer service delivery which will lead to customer satisfaction. This chapter which looks at the literature review will primarily center on why buyers behave the way they behave, their purchase decision process, the influencers of their decision, gathering knowledge for purchase decision, effective segmentation by supermarket operators, how to cultivate a good behaviour for shoppers, shopping convenience among other things. This is an attempt to develop a framework for the study buyer behaviour as a determinant for purchase. Shopping Motivation Shopping has become a part of everyday living for most people both home and abroad. Regardless of the increase of various home delivery shopping services, shopping for most reasons means physical visits to a shopping site. The place most repeatedly visited is either the supermarket or the shopping mall. In fact, going shopping is a major source of relaxation as well as a household chore according to Dholakia (1999). Oakley (1974) asserts that shopping is one of the activities with the most positive attribute of being able to talk to others while doing work. Shopping is widely regarded as a major leisure-time activity Reid and Brown (1996). Cullen (1990) emphasized that, shopping is second only to TV watching in the pantheon of British leisure. Others such as Bloch et al (1992) and Macalister (1992) have also generally and similarly supported that with statistical data. Shopping may or may not be a leisure or recreational activity Howard (2007). Theories of recreation and its meaning are numerous and often times they come with a moral factor. Bronowski (in Howard, 2007) for instance believes that, leisure brings a promise that: . . . â€Å"A deep sense of appreciation envelopes us and lifts us to a higher plane, where we discover that there is peace and beauty and joy in the world. And that may carry over into increasing appreciation of life itself†. Shopping motivation may be due to buyer leisure and an important factor to this can be attributed to be attitude to time by diverse consumers on special occasions. This assertion has had some exploring work on them (Davies, 1994; Whysall, 1991, Howard, 2007). There are a lot of scholars who have pointed out that, there is a nascent sense of time pressure on consumers/customers and these tend to be more affluent than the normal citizenry (Lewis and Bridger, 2000 and Howard, 2007). Schiller (1999) make a case that â€Å"mainstream retailing† (consisting of routinely and regularly purchased goods) is increasingly being put under a time squeeze, partly because of longer working hours and higher female participation rates in the labour market, and partly because holidays and other leisure activities are taking an increasing share of consumers’ time and money. Schiller (1999) explain â€Å"leisure shopping† â€Å"as the mirror image of mainstream retailing where the outing is not so much a means to an end as the whole point, and shopping is only part of the experience†. There is evidence of an increasing proportion of people saying that they spend time looking around the shops as a leisure activity (Mintel, 2000). Tauber 1972 gave two categories of shopping motives to be role playing and Social experience outside the home. The table below shows nine shopping motives which have been grouped under two main categories. Table I Shopping Motivation Source: Tauber (1972) In his research, Dholakia, (1996) empirically determined three motives for going shopping based on factor analysis of 13 statements. These three motives were labeled as: Interactions with family Utilitarian and Shopping as pleasure Shop attractiveness The shop must be attractive to meet the expectation of the target customer. Shop attractiveness may come as a result interplay of multiple of factors. A customer may find a shop attractive due to its versatility in terms of product assortment and variety, physical evidence, tailor-measured customer service, fast service recovery rate, longetivity, location convenience, one-stop shopping advantage among other things. Howard (2007) asks what she terms as the obvious question of shopping as just what makes shopping a pleasurable or leisure experience. Amongst the work on particular environments and factors have appeared some interesting ideas about browsing (Bloch et al., 1991, 1994; Lombart, 2004, Howard, 2007). Jones (1999) looked at the array of factors involved in entertaining shopping experiences. Jones observed retailer factors (prices, selection, store environment and salespeople) and customer factors (social aspects, tasks, times, product involvement and financial resources) tog ether. There have been a few empirical studies done to analyze the motivational aspects of consumers to explain their attraction to shopping malls (Bodkin and Lord, 1997; Ruiz, 1999; Dennis et al., 2001; Nicholls, et al., 2000, 2002, El-Adly, 2007). Ruiz (1999) puts the starting point of some shoppers’ attractiveness to shops on the motives of purely economic motives; while others are attracted due to emotional motives and other due to multi-purpose shoppers which are the combination of these motives. In Nicholls et al. (2000), he found that Chilean consumers visit malls for fundamental reason of purchasing factors and also he found USA consumers visit to shopping malls is for diverse reasons which largely revolves around entertainment. Wakefield and Baker (1998) found that the mall environment influences the desire to stay and re-patronage intentions to the mall. Bloch et al. (1994) on the other hand in his paper investigated the consequence of shopping mall physical environment on consumers’ emotional states. His research reviewed that malls were viewed by consumers as a place for shopping as the basic reasons; however, entertainment played a role among other things in the view of consumers about the shopping mall. Nicholls et al. (2002) added to entertainment motives when he observed that today’s mall patrons tend to be more leisure driven than shoppers in the early 1990s. Finn Louviere, 1996; and Sit et al., 2003 in their studies have given the indication that, the significance of the shopping centre image is a decisive determinant on consumer patronage decisions. Terblanche (1999) was concerned about the impact of four dimensions on shopping centre patronage. His four dimensions of shopping center patronage included, functional, recreational, socializing, and convenience dimensions. He based on these dimensions to be the perceived profit that consumers enjoy when visiting a super regional shopping centre or a shopping mall. His findings showed that recreation (entertainment) appears to be the major benefit pursued by shoppers that patronize a super regional shopping centre. Bellenger et al., 1977; Bloch et al., 1994; and Roy, 1994 also looked at demographic and psychographic characteristics of mall patrons. Martin and Turley (2004) studied the attitudes of the young segment of shoppers towards malls, and factors arousing utilization. They found that they were more likely to be objectively rather than socially motivated to patronize. In addition to the effect of malls’ internal attributes on patronage, other attributes such as travel components that include comfort, reliability of transport mode, effort, tension, distance, and value were significant in affecting shopping centers’ patronage (Ibrahim, 2002). Segmenting the consumer market of shopping mall Over the last three decades, there has been a substantial amount of research on market segmentation for consumer goods and services El-Adly (2007). As competition in the retail marketplace increases, the need for more precise segmentation tools becomes greater Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). However, segmentation research in retailing was very rare and concentrated on individual stores, not on the mall itself (Frasquet et al., 2001; Ruiz et al., 2004). Demographic variables alone provide a narrow perspective of consumer behaviour and thus market segmentation (Boedeker and Marjanen, 1993). Methods using shopping motivation as the basis for distinguishing between individuals offer a more grounded approach in classifying shoppers, Stone (1954), Tauber (1972), Westbrook and Black (1985) and Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980). Retail market segmentation is necessary and often critical to the development of effective marketing strategies in today’s competitive marketplace Segal and Giacobbe (1994). Segal and Giacobbe (1994) further posit that, the impetus for a market segmentation strategy is basic: customers exhibit heterogeneous needs and purchase patterns, and thus respond differently to different marketing stimuli. El-Adly (2007) suggest that there are two segmentation approaches that have been introduced in the marketing literature, a priori and cluster-based segmentation (also called post-hoc). Priory segmentation has been subject to criticism in that it focuses on the external characteristics of consumers (e.g. sex, age and social class) in describing the differences between segments’ behaviour El-Adly (2007). Harrison, (1995) asserts that, these external characteristics are not necessary determinants of buying behaviour. Thus, it is found that, just a few researchers have used this approach in shopping centre segmentation Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). Lee et al. (2005) as an instance studied shopping centre factors that have an influence on shopping enjoyment of male segment. They found that â€Å"shopping-centre features†, â€Å"ancillary facilities†, â€Å"value-added features† and â€Å"special events† are momentous in shaping male shoppersâ€℠¢ pleasure. Dennis et al. (2001) in a part of their study used different subsets of a priori segmentation pairs: male/female, higher/lower socio-economic groups, higher/lower household income, older/younger and auto/public transport. Dennis et al. (2001) however, the finally based their study on post-hoc segmentation. â€Å"Service† and â€Å"shops† were identified groups importance of motivation, which were seen as more useful than conventional a priori segmentation roots in modeling spending behaviour among shoppers. Compared with a priori segmentation, the post-hoc or cluster-based approach has obtained much attention in shopping mall segmentation El-Adly (2007). Using this approach, a heterogeneous population is segmented on the basis of homogeneous responses from within the population (Gwin and Lindgren, 1982). In this concern, Finn and Louviere (1990) identified shopper segments based on differences in shopping mall consideration sets and investigated the differences in mall choice parameters for these segments. At the same line, Boedeker (1995) segmented shoppers on the basis of their general choice criteria of a retail outlet, into two groups the â€Å"new type shoppers† who value both the recreational and economic/convenience characteristics of a retail outlet and the â€Å"traditional shoppers† who were much lower in their desire for the recreational aspects. Mall attributes have been used by Reynolds et al. (2002) to segment malls into five segments namely enthusiasts, basi c, apathetic, destination and serious. Sit et al. (2003) used the mall image attributes to segment shoppers into six market segments labeled as the â€Å"serious† shopper, the â€Å"entertainment† shopper, the â€Å"demanding† shopper, the â€Å"convenience† shopper, the â€Å"apathetic† shopper, and the â€Å"service† shopper. Stone (1954) suggested that consumers engage in the shopping process for a variety of reasons which can be identified with one or more of four shopper-orientation profiles, namely economic shoppers, who view shopping as a necessary task; personalising shoppers, who value the social networking integral to shopping; ethical shoppers, who see shopping as an activity influenced by their views as to what is right or wrong, and apathetic shoppers, who dislike the activity. Other researchers have advanced and refined the notion of shopping motivation using the same or similar conceptualisations (Tauber, 1972; Buttle and Coates, 1984). Boedeker (1995) found that shopping profiles can be classified into two main types, new-type shoppers and traditional shoppers. Boedeker (1995) put forward that the main differences between these factions lie in their fondness for the use of leisure time and their experiences while shopping. New type shoppers refer to those consumers who simultaneously value both the recreational and economic/convenience characteristics of a retail outlet Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). They further posit that traditional shoppers tend to enjoy the experience more. Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980) argue that, for some people, shopping may even be a very enjoyable use of time without the purchase of goods or services. These shoppers can be referred to as the recreational shoppers; they usually embark on non-planned shopping and are more likely to persist to shop even after making a purchase. Convenience shoppers on the other hand, may seek to minimize the time required for shopping Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). While most studies have considered shopping for any type of product, some previous studies have focused specifically on food shopping behaviour, the product sector of interest here. Cluster analysis has been used to identify market segments who share similar views (Darden and Ashton, 1974; Herrmann and Warland, 1990). Purchase decision process Trout and Rivkin (2000) estimate that there are now more than one million stock-keeping units (SKUs) in America, and that an average supermarket stocks 40,000 SKUs. The complexity of consumer decisions is increasing: in the 1960s a consumer chose between approximately 100 models from four car manufacturers – now there are 260 models from 20 manufacturers (Trout and Rivkin, 2000). Lye et al (2005) in their study have done an in-depth review of both empirical and theoretical studies on consumer decision making. Lye et al (2005) comprehensive analysis of consumer decision is being adopted by this study. They analyzed the works of Kotler, 1972; Schramm, 1971; Howard (1963); Nicosia (1966); Engel et al., 1978; Engel et al. (1968); Farley and Ring, 1970; Lutz and Resek, 1972; Hunt and Pappas, 1972; San Augustine et al., 1977; Hunt and Pappas, 1972; Rau and Samiee, 1981 They posit that the simplest and perhaps earliest theoretical form of consumer decision model was the â€Å"black box† (Kotler et al., 2004, p. 244). Lye et al (2005) explained that, the black box provides a simplified model focused on exogenous variables. The black box model avoided any supposition associated with identifying processes and variables embedded in the minds of consumers. It is essentially a stimulus-response model based on early communication research, including the work of Ivan Pavlov (Kotler, 1972, p. 104). Schramm argues that: . . . most of the communication process is in the â€Å"black box† of the central nervous system, the contents of which we understand only vaguely [. . .] we are therefore dealing with analogies and gross functions [. . .] [not] a true copy of what happens in the black box, a matter of which we cannot now speak with any great confidence (Schramm, 1971, pp. 24-5). The early integrated models of consumer decision-making attempted to unpack the black box to provide an understanding of the internal consumer decision process for marketing purposes Lye et al (2005). Howard (1963) presented an integrative model of buyer behaviour that was modified and became the well-known Howard and Sheth model (1969). Nicosia (1966) published an influential model that used a diagram and equations to explain the decision process. However, a lack of empirical support or subsequent modifications (Engel et al., 1978) resulted in Nicosia’s model disappearing from marketing texts. The Engel et al. (1968) buyer behaviour model survives today, albeit in a modified form. Although other models have been published, these early models were ground-breaking: they evolved and two of the three have survived for over 30 years Lye et al (2005). These integrated buyer behaviour models comes with some criticisms, and empirical testing has proved problematic (Farley and Ring, 1970; Lutz and Resek, 1972; Hunt and Pappas, 1972). However, support for parts of the models has been published (e.g. San Augustine et al., 1977). The greatest empirical challenges have been creating a clear definition of the model boundaries, identifying the relationship between the variables and determining the best proxies by which the variables can be operationalized (Hunt and Pappas, 1972; Rau and Samiee, 1981). The purpose of the early consumer decision models was to illustrate conceptually an integrated decision model rather than develop a precise, comprehensive research roadmap. The stated purpose of the Howard-Sheth model was the â€Å"description, application, and assessment of those elements of the theory of human behaviour which they believe to be essential in understanding the range of activities that they call ‘buying’† (Rau and Samiee, 1981, p. 307). Our current powerful analytical techniques may allow us to test these â€Å"holistic† early models, but should we do so? Should we impose 35 years of empirical research on these foundational conceptual models and expect empirical validity, when their stated purpose was a conceptual description? Lye et al (2005) asked what they call the fundamental question of whether the existing decision models reflect the reality of current decision making. They answered both in the affirmative and in the negative citing that, in the affirmative, decision models have been found to reflect decision-making within the context of a single decision that is under examination within the empirical research. In the negative they cited lack of generalization across decision contexts. The psychology world of the decision maker is seen to be influenced by a set of expectations that are in turn a function of the background of dependent on product and company specific factors as well as on the process of joint decision making. Howard and Sheth also called attention to the critical factors in organizational buying. Consumer Decision theory Consumer decision theory has been developed simultaneously in the psychology, organizational behaviour and marketing disciplines, with each trying to understand the decision-making of individuals, albeit for different purposes and from different perspectives Lye et al (2005). There are three main sets of groupings of consumer decision theory; they are; (1) Normative decision theory (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947; Savage, 1954). The normative decision theory gives a prescription of how the person making the decision should behave to obtain maximum utility (Edwards, 1954; Simon, 1955; Fischhoff et al., 1983; Beach, 1998). The expected utility theory (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947) and subjective expected utility theory (Savage, 1954) are examples of the normative decision theory. Fischer et al., (2000) asserts that â€Å"the normative decision theory permits decision makers to be uncertain about the occurrence of events in the external environment, but assume that decision makers know their own preferences with certainty†. (2) Simon (1955) has challenged the normative decision theory. He argued that the decision maker has only bounded rationality (March, 1978) and is seeking to â€Å"satisfice†, not maximize. Based on that, the behavioural decision theory has been formed (Payne et al., 1988, 1993). Payne et al in both of researches has found that consumers are adaptive decision makers and their preferences are highly dependent on person-, context-, and task-specific factors (Tversky, 1969; Lichtenstein and Slovic, 1971; Simonson, 1989; Slovic, 1995; Luce et al., 1997; Luce, 1998; Swait and Adamowicz, 2001). This constructive view of decision-making differentiates between behavioural and normative decision theory (Payne et al., 1992). In reality, not all decision makers have well-established preferences. Hence researchers argued that consumer preference uncertainty leads to contingent use of decision strategies (Payne, 1976, 1982; Christensen-Szalanski, 1978; Payne et al., 1995) and contingent we ighting of attribute importance (Tversky et al., 1988; Fischer et al., 2000) by consumers. Behavioural decision research has identified many decision strategies. â€Å"Satisficing† (Simon, 1955) is arguably the most well known behavioural strategy. (3) The third theory is the naturalistic decision theory (Klein et al., 1993). This has evolved out of the principle that decision behaviour should be observed in its natural settings and decision models be developed from the observed real-life decision behaviour (Beach, 1998). Naturalistic decision theory approaches decision making from both a process and outcome perspective Lye et al (2005). Lye et al (2005) posits that, the naturalistic theory begins with a â€Å"situation assessment† and offers multiple paths to a purchase decision depending on the consumer’s assessment of that decision situation. Each decision theory category has developed in response to a need to understand the consumer decision process within the â€Å"black box†, with many different decision strategies providing insight into how consumers make decisions Lye et al (2005). Consumer Decision Strategies Consumers in making purchase decisions go through processes which will eventually will them to the choice of a decision alternative (Svenson, 1979, Lye et al., 2005). The strategies that consumers go through can be categorized by using two factors which are the compensatory versus non-compensatory comparisons; and alternative-based versus attribute-based (Bettman et al., 1998) comparisons. Lye et al., (2005) have tabulated the comparative summary of normative and behavioural decision theories which I present in table I below. Table I: Classification of decision strategies Compensatory Non-compensatory Alternative Additive models Equal weighting models Weighted adding Conjunctive Equal weight Satisficing Disjunctive Attribute Additive difference models Differential weighting models Majority of confirming dimensions Lexographic Elimination by aspects Lye et al., 2005 All normative decision strategies fall within the â€Å"additive† group, reflecting a process of analyzing each option in detail. Compensatory strategies require consumers to make a trade-off between differing values on multiple attributes (Stevenson and Naylor, 1990). Compensatory strategies require extensive information processing because substantial detail is gathered to analyze the trade-offs Lye et al (2005). Non-compensatory strategies do not involve trade-off – rather, they focus on whether or not an attribute meets a predetermined cut-off level (Stevenson and Naylor, 1990). Alternative-based processing refers to a consumer selecting a product/brand and examining all of its attributes before considering the next product (or alternative) Lye et al (2005). The consumer as an adaptive decision maker and does not have a master list of preferences, creating challenges when they choose in an unfamiliar environment Lye et al., (2005). Payne et al. (1993), proposing an accuracy-effort framework, found that consumers are adaptive decision makers. No single strategy is the more efficient across all decision environments (Payne et al., 1995), and therefore consumers constantly adjust their behaviour and their decision strategy in a way that represents reasonable accuracy-effort trade-offs (March, 1978; Payne et al., 1990). Bettman et al. (1998) have proposed an extension of the accuracy-effort framework. They made a case that, in addition to maximizing decision accuracy and minimizing cognitive effort, consumers would also want to minimize negative emotion and maximize ease of justification for the purchase made; i.e. a combination of four meta-goals contributes to consumers’ contingent decision behaviour. Empirical research has revealed that consumers use a decision strategy based on task complexity (Payne, 1976; Olshavsky, 1979), cognitions (Pennington and Hastie, 1986, 1988; Shanteau, 1988; Hammond, 1990) and â€Å"feelings† or emotion (Garbarino and Edell, 1997; Luce et al., 1997). Research reveals the consumer may be an adaptive decision maker, utilizing different strategies in purchase decisions Lye et al., (2005). Buyer Behaviour Rational buyer behavior is based on the decision process, which involves the set of rules that the buyer employs to match his motives and his means of satisfying those motives (Howard and Sheth, 1969). Different studies have shown that consumers showing differences in their characteristics have different needs and wants, so the variation becomes observable in the decisions they take during buying a product (Zeithaml, 198; Zeithaml, 1988; Stanton et al., 1994). In view of that, a number of buyer behaviour models have been developed and discussed in the literature. I will therefore at this point give the state of affairs in the marketing and economics literature concerning behaviour models. Buyer behaviour models The buyer behaviour models on the present day’s literature are extensive and divergent in their methodology and usefulness. Nicosia (1968) and Engel et al. (1978) are among the very ones that are mostly used by researchers and in an attempt to arrive at a more purposeful model, there has been modification and improvement since they were introduced. The foundations of current consumer decision theory were laid in the 1960s with the Nicosia (1968), Engel et al. (1968) and Howard and Sheth (1969) integrated models of consumer decision making. Despite increasing purchase complexity, two of these models have been remarkably resilient and have remained as the basis for current marketing texts and marketing education (for examples, see Kotler et al., 2004; Sheth and Krishnan, 2005). The Nicosia model (1968) has its focus on the processes that proceeds purchases and followed by the act; and not necessarily on the act of purchasing itself, `The act of purchasing is only one component of a complex ongoing process; a process of many interactions amongst many variables Vignali et al, (2001). Vignali et al, (2001) asserts that, the firms attributes lead to a message being sent out to the consumer, who in turn translates the message based on their own attributes and needs. The Nicosia (1968) model assumes that no prior consumer knowledge or experience with the product exists. Researchers such as Loudon, 1988; Chisnall, 1992; and Solomon, 1994 believe that, the search and evaluation processes considered in this model are over-rational Vignali et al, (2001). They alluded to high-cost products as opposed to low-cost products. Therefore, the use of this model to study food buyer behaviour is limited. Howard and Sheth (1968) also developed a model which was more or less a black box model. This model ended up categorizing three variables which determine and influence an individual’s buying decision. These categories are; institutional environmental characteristics; societal environmental characteristics; personal characteristics. This model involves information processing, perception and purchasing processes which are a result of motives Vignali et al, (2001). The next commonly used model is the Engel, Kollat Blackwell model (1978) which originated in 1968. This model in 1973 went through some development and was further revised in 1978. The model por

Achieving Peace Through Militarism Essay -- Militarism

(the works cited are missing form this paper) The modern state’s approach to peace is primarily a justification for militarism and warfare. Examples of this include the proliferation of nuclear capabilities, the â€Å"war on terror,† and what time, money, and forces are dedicated to military action compared to peacekeeping missions through the U.N. The issue of nuclear warfare is a good example of militarism justified by supposed need for defense and security. Donald Davidson’s book explains that â€Å"the only conditions that justify killing are those necessary for the protection of human life, that is, defense of self and others (Davidson,1983).† However, a Quaker leader stated in 1982 that â€Å"the just-war theory is out of date. It makes nonsense when one is talking about nuclear weapons and nuclear war (Davidson, 1983).† He’s saying that when it comes to nuclear warfare, the Just War Doctrine becomes more or less useless and impossible to follow. When the Soviet Union and the U.S. were engaged in the Cold War, they built up their nuclear capabilities in an arms race claimed to be for safety and defense reasons. However, as these superpowers and their allies created their tens of thousands of nuclear weapons and stocked their arsenals, they continued to put the future of the human race in a more delicate and unstable position (Regehr, 1980). They developed more and more weapons including chemical, biological, and nuclear bombs, which led to counterforce weapons to fight against their military forces, which led to first strike weapons, which led to cruise missiles, leading up to the point where what they had set up seemed mad (Klare, 1978). In fact, their weaponry build up led to a term called Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), a form o... ... with the most power, influence, and military spending in the world. So if one of them does not want the U.N. to get involved in a situation, then they have the power to veto any decisions (Goldstein, 2008), making it more difficult for peace to be implemented in areas of their involvement. Even though modern states claim to strive for peace, there are many examples when their actions do not agree with that goal, instead focusing on militarism and warfare. This is shown through the creation and build up of nuclear weapons, the U.S.A.’s â€Å"war on terror,† and the world’s involvement and noninvolvement in the U.N.’s peacekeeping efforts. Hopefully the world will come to its senses one day and realize that their militaristic and destructive ways will not create a better world for anyone and will put turn their efforts and finances toward real peace and development plans.

Structure of American and California Governments :: essays research papers

The United States of America is one of the most powerful nation-states in the world today. The framers of the American Constitution spent a great deal of time and effort into making sure this power wasn’t too centralized in one aspect of the government. They created three branches of government to help maintain a checks and balance system. In this paper I will discuss these three branches, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, for both the state and federal level. The legislative branch of America helps create the laws or legislation. Ideally, it works to create a society that is safe for all members. The State of California like the federal government has a bicameral legislature, in other words, composed of two chambers. The upper chamber is called the senate, while the lower is called the assembly. A unique process for the state level is that it allows for the initiative. This process circumvents the state congress and can create laws without their aide. In the state of California, every ten years, following a US census, which collects demographic information, state legislators draw redistricting plans for itself, California seats in the US House of Representatives, and the State Board of Equalization. There have been attempts to create a â€Å"non-partisan† redistricting commission, but this has been turned down by voters numerous times. Proposition 14, 39, 118, and 119 were all turned down by voters to create a non-partisan district ing commission. Every decade a large portion of the state congress’s energy is spent on redistricting. In fact, two of the last four censuses, Supreme Court has had to step in to break a deadlock. In 1970, Ronald Reagan, a Republican, vetoed all together the Democratic redistricting plan. The Supreme Court had to step in and created its own plans for California to follow. Then in 1981, Democrats proposed redistricting as well as congressional delegation redistricting. The Republicans stopped this by adding referendums to the state ballot. Because it was too close to elections though, Supreme Court overturned these referendums in 1982. In 1984, they officially passed the new redistricting plan which was very similar to the original plans. In 1990, Governor Pete Wilson, a Republican, could not agree with a predominantly Democratic state legislature. The United States Supreme Court again had to step in and make independent plans. They created a system that moved two assembly districts into each senate district, otherwise known as a â€Å"nested† system.

Government :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marriage is a word where a man and a woman come together in the eyes of God and pronounce their love for one another and are joined together as one. This concept has been the ways of the world for hundreds of years. However, marriage back during the eighteenth (18th) and nineteenth (19th) century was completely different from the way it is in the twenty-first (21st) century. Woman of today have better equal right to the world where they are seen as equals to men than woman back in the day. Over the years ancient philosophers tried to dissect the concept of equality for woman back during the 18th and 19th century. One of those philosophers was John Stuart Mills who developed a writing called the Subjection of Women, which dealt with the women’s emancipation. He also made references of sexual equality in his other works (Utilitarianism, On Liberty) as well. The institute of marriage has been oppressive to woman why is that so? That is what we are going to explore and find out. The institute of marriage was a burden to women during the 18th and 19th century because they were not seen as equals. They were either forced into marriage by their parents by marriage arrangements or they married for survival in the world. The men during that time were seen as the breadwinners. Men work to support the family financially, where the women bared the children, kept the home clean and ensured that there was a meal on the table every day. Women were not allowed to vote, play a role in politics, nor could they earn an income to support their family. Whatever the husband voted or how he played a role in his career and politics was the wife’s position as well. John Stuart Mills was a philosopher who believed in utilitarianism, which is the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. He believed this to be for both men and women. He advocated for women because he believed they needed to prosper in societies. He said that â€Å" women expressive power has been stifled and that if women fail to developed and if they are excluded from involvement, society as whole is impoverished if it denies itself their contributions † (Subjection of Women) He believes that women need to be out in the world doing the same things as men, and that they can contribute a lot to society.

A Peaceful Women

Sarah Pacheco English 1101, MW 9:30 A Peaceful Women Explains†¦ 11/04/12 Purpose and Audience 1. In paragraph one, Hasselstrom clearly states that she is â€Å"peace-loving† and due to past events she carries a pistol to be safe. She also wants to give valuable reasons on why people should carry pistols. 2. Paragraph five serves to give an example of a person who got raped after calling for help on her CB radio. The author is trying to point out that the person got raped because she did not have a weapon for self defense. It supports her main idea so therefore I don’t consider this paragraph unnecessary. . Yes, the author is aiming women in particular. In all the examples, she directly explains how women are harassed by men. Therefore, a women should carry a weapon. 4. She does not expect most ogf her readers to agree with her position. She indicates in paragraph four a challenge from her opposing audience,. She challenges Style and Structure 1. 2. The most importa nt reason Hasselstrom gives for carrying a gun is to â€Å"provide a measure of safety. † The contributory causes are to avoid being raped or murdered and to have a balance of power. 3.Yes, I could argue that not only women need a gun to be safe. Men as well confront dangerous situations in their lives. Hasselstrom does argue in all her situations that women should always carry a gun for safety. 4. Situations such as living far away from the city and traveling could support her decision on why she carries a gun. 5. Yes, she explain how she can’t imagine shooting someone. Vocabulary Projects 2. She says, â€Å" perhaps this is an idea whose time has come, though the pacifist inside me will be saddened if the only way women can achieve equality is by carrying weapons.

Drug Testing and Ethics Essay

Is drug testing an unwarranted invasion of employee privacy? Which is more important–getting drugs out of the workplace or protecting the privacy of the employee? What about other health-threatening activities, i. e. smoking outside of working hours, unprotected sex, etc. Should employers be able to question or test employees or potential employees about these activities? Both of these scenarios are tricky ones. On the one hand, any employer would want to get drugs out of the workplace. On the other hand you don’t want to invade an employee’s privacy. At the same time some jobs may require employees to conform to a certain standard of behavior both on and off the job, but how much is too much? How much should be employees be judged and how high of a standard should be set. Where do we draw the line? Shaw and Barry in their text Moral Issues in Business state â€Å"A firm has a legitimate interest in employee conduct off the job only if it affects work performance† (Shaw & Barry 2010, p477). It can be argued that as long as the drug use doesn’t affect the employee’s work performance, then he shouldn’t be tested. If he is tested and the result is positive, but work performance is satisfactory, then drug use should not be considered as grounds for termination. Perhaps a better way to state this could be that as long as employee performance meets or exceeds the expected standards, then drug testing should not be used even if drug use is suspected. Egoism can be used to argue from both points of view. According to this theory, â€Å"an act is morally right if and only if it best promotes an agent’s interests† (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p59). Following this theory, if the employer drug tests several employees and fires all who test positive, then they are acting in their best interests. On the other hand, if the employee’s best interests are served through their drug usage, then the employee has acted in the best moral way that he can. Using this theory does however raise some interesting questions. If the best possible person for a specific job is fired as a result of a drug test result, and the company’s performance in that specific department falls as a result of this, then was the action a morally right one? From a personal point of view, I believe that drug testing should be used only if the job requirements demand it. I don’t see any need for the person who picks up my garbage to be tested. I do however see a need for the school crossing guard at my children’s school to be tested. The person who shovels the snow from my driveway in the winter and mows my lawn in the spring and summer doesn’t need to be drug tested. My doctor should be. Several years ago my husband and I had a spat over my decision to hire the town drunk to do some lawn work and prune some tree branches off our roof. In all fairness I had no idea that he was the town drunk when I hired him, I was out in our backyard picking up fallen branches and he walked by at that moment. He asked if I had any odd jobs to be done and since he came across as clean and presentable and lucid I hired him on the spot. It wasn’t until three weeks later when my husband came home early and saw Bruce (the town drunk) at the top of a 50 foot tree sawing branches off that he realized who his new handyman was. Since he was usually the one on call at night whenever Bruce had one of his â€Å"benders† and had had cleaned him up several times, he now knew where Bruce was getting his drinking money from. My husband came home and told me he’d fired him. I rehired Bruce a day later. My reasoning was that he’d never shown up drunk, he did a great job on any task I set for him and his fee was reasonable. It was within my best interests to keep Bruce employed therefore I was acting as an egoist. It was within Bruce’s best interests to remain employed since it gave him the money to support his habit. He was acting as an egoist. We were both also following the theory of Libertarianism under which each person is free to live as he or she wishes â€Å"free from the interference of others† (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p122). My husband in his decision to fire Bruce was also acting partially from an egoist point of view since an unemployed Bruce meant a sober Bruce which meant no trips to the ER which meant that my husband wouldn’t have to deal with a cursing, screaming, bloody drunk Bruce. At the same time he was also acting from Kant’s theory which states that â€Å"Only when we act from a sense of duty does our action have moral worth† (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p69). My husband felt that it was his duty as a member of the medical profession, not to enable a habit that could possibly cause harm to an individual. A high incidence of false positive results in drug testing is another reason for the argument that drug testing should not be used. In researching this paper I was surprised to learn how many over the counter drugs can produce false positive results. According to an article on The National Center for Biotechnology Information website entitled â€Å"Commonly prescribed medications and potential false positive urine drug screens† published Aug 15th 2010, â€Å"A number of routinely prescribed medications have been associated with triggering false-positive UDS results. Verification of the test results with a different screening test or additional analytical tests should be performed to avoid adverse consequences for the patients. † Some of the more common drugs that could produce false positive results were nonprescription nasal inhalers such as Vicks, antihistamines, antidepressants, and antibiotics such as Amoxicillin which has been associated with false positive urine screens for cocaine. Employers should not be able to question or test employees about other behaviors that they might consider health threatening. This is a rather grey area and raises the questions of where to draw the line. For example if a company which is trying to reduce health insurance costs, decides to eliminate all smokers from their payroll since it costs more to insure smokers, shouldn’t they then eliminate overweight employees who are more likely to develop health problems than fit ones? What about employees with pre-existing conditions such as high cholesterol or high blood pressure or kidney problems? Shouldn’t they be eliminated as well? Should employers be allowed to use polygraph tests to â€Å"screen† out potentially costly employees who may engage in illegal drug use or any of these activities? The polygraph test, or as it is more commonly known, the lie detector test measures several physiological with in the human body such as increased blood pressure, increased pulse and respiration. However in spite of what most people believe it is not the most reliable test. Shaw and Barry in their text Moral Issues in Business list three assumptions made by those who advocate for the use of these tests. These assumptions are *  1.  Lying will automatically trigger a distinctive response to the question. * 2. Polygraphs are very accurate. * 3. Polygraphs cannot be beaten. (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p480). Unfortunately for these advocates while the polygraph test measures bodily responses to questions it cannot indicate whether or not the response is actually a lie. A person who has a history of being abused may register different reactions to questions along that subject area and all that these reactions may indicate is discomfort to the question not necessarily that the response to the question itself is a lie. Opinions vary as to just how accurate the tests are with the percentages ranging from 90% to as low as 55%, the higher percentages coming not surprisingly from the American Polygraph Association. Finally polygraph tests can be beaten and even generate false positives. Spies John Walker and Aldrich Ames both passed polygraph tests as did Gary Ridgeway the â€Å"Green Killer†. Ames actually passed two different polygraph tests. Since these tests are costly, using them as a screening method for either new hires or present employees may not be the best solution and should be considered on a case by case basis. Other methods should be used before resorting to polygraphs testing such as drug testing which may indicate previous drug use (although as has been mentioned earlier some false positive results may occur) or even background tests which may turn up questionable incidents. If during the course of these two checks questions are raised about the employee or new hire, then the employer could resort to the use of a polygraph. It could be argued that utilizing either or both of these two other methods is even more costly to the employers but I would say that any employer who needs to use a polygraph test to weed out potentially costly employees could afford to administer the extra tests to be absolutely sure. Fortunately for most employees, the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 which protects the rights of employees and outlines the usage and restrictions of lie detector tests states: â€Å"The EPPA prohibits most private employers from using lie detector tests, either for preemployment screening or during the course of employment. Employers generally may not require or request any employee or job applicant to take a lie detector test, or discharge, discipline, or discriminate against an employee or job applicant for refusing to take a test or for exercising other rights under the Act†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ It then goes on to outline just which employers are permitted to utilize lie detector tests †¦ â€Å"Subject to restrictions, the Act permits polygraph (a type of lie detector) tests to be administered to certain job applicants of security service firms (armored car, alarm, and guard) and of pharmaceutical manufacturers, distributors, and dispensers. Subject to restrictions, the Act also permits polygraph testing of certain employees of private firms who are reasonably suspected of involvement in a workplace incident (theft, embezzlement, etc. ) that resulted in specific economic loss or injury to the employer. † (United States Department of Labor website) My argument to using a polygraph test therefore would be that assuming that the employer fell into one of these categories then yes they should be permitted to utilize lie detector tests but only as a last resort. I submit this argument using the rule utilitarianism theory. This is not to be confused with act utilitarianism. Under act utilitarianism, â€Å"we ask must ask ourselves what the consequences of a particular act in a particular situation will be for all those affected. If its consequences bring more total good than those of any alternative course of action, then this action is the right one† (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p63) The action that produces the greatest amount of happiness is the right one. Rule utilitarianism asks â€Å"what moral code †¦ a society should adopt to maximize happiness. The principles that make up that code would then be the basis for distinguishing right actions from wrong actions† (Shaw & Barry, 2010 p80-81). Under act utilitarianism, if 20 employees were polygraphed and 15 of them failed the test and were fired as a result, then the action would not be a moral one since more people would be left unhappy rather than happy. Using those same figures, if the rule or moral code that needed to be followed was that of a no drug policy, and the same 20 employees were polygraphed and again 15 failed and were fired, then the action would be a morally right one since firing the 15 employees made sure that the moral code was enforced. References http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20689123 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph_test http://www.dol.gov/compliance/guide/eppa.htm#who

Imat

THE ITALIAN UNIVERSITIES’ INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL ADMISSIONS TEST (IMAT) TEST SPECIFICATION In partnership with Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca (MIUR) February 2013 Test Specification Test Format The IMAT will have the same structure as the existing Italian test. Candidates are allowed a total of 90 minutes to complete the test. Section 1 General Knowledge and Logical Reasoning (Critical Thinking and Problem Solving) 30 multiple-choice questions. Sections 2, 3 and 4Science-based sections, covering: Biology; Chemistry; Physics & Mathematics. 30 multiple-choice questions. All questions have five options, of which one is correct. Candidates record their answers on a separate answer sheet. Candidates can also indicate if they have opted not to answer a question. Candidates are allowed 90 minutes to complete the test. Scoring A candidate’s total score is calculated using the following formula: 1. 5 points for each correct answer; -0. 4 points for eac h wrong answer; 0 points for each question not answered.An overall total score will be reported, together with a score on each section. Level of Difficulty The level of difficulty of the test items will be targeted to discriminate effectively between applicants, including those who may have achieved the highest possible grades in school examinations. Section 1: General Knowledge and Logical Reasoning (Critical Thinking and Problem Solving) Section 1 will assess general knowledge and the logical reasoning skills that students must possess if they are to succeed in a course of study at the highest level.Such skills are basic to any academic studies, which often require students to solve novel problems, or consider arguments put forward to justify a conclusion, or to promote or defend a particular point of view. General Knowledge General Knowledge questions may address a range of cultural topics, including aspects of literary, historical, philosophical, social and political culture. 1 The World Heritage Convention, adopted by UNESCO in 1972, aims to identify and maintain a list of sites that may be considered: A of exceptional cultural or natural importance B of outstanding economic value C to be characterized by a lasting peaceD to be conventionally suitable for human settlement E to have exploitable energy resources Critical Thinking Critical Thinking involves reasoning using everyday written language. Questions focus on the skills involved in understanding and evaluating arguments. These include: drawing and summarising conclusions, identifying assumptions and reasoning errors, and assessing the impact of additional evidence. Summarising the Main Conclusion 2 There has been a decline in the rate of many of the illnesses of old age. The causes of this decline include such medical advances as new drugs and surgical techniques.There is, however, another factor. The present generation of 60- and 70-year-olds had much better nutrition as children than did their par ents. Good nutrition in childhood is important for good health in adulthood. Since improvements in nutrition have continued over the past sixty years, we can expect that many of the illnesses of old age will continue to decline. W hich one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument? A W e can expect that improvements in nutrition will continue. B The rate of many of the illnesses of old age has declined.C Medical advances have significantly reduced the rate of diseases of old age. D The fall in the rate of many of the illnesses associated with old age will continue. E Improvements in nutrition have been very important in maintaining good health in old age. In this type of question you have to judge which one of the statements A to E best expresses the main conclusion of the argument. The conclusion can appear anywhere within an argument – not necessarily at the end. What you are looking for is the statement which follows from, or is supported by the rest of the passage. Drawing a Conclusion The demand for blood donors is increasing all over the world. In Western countries, in particular, demand has been rising so rapidly that shortages have begun to appear. In all such countries, demand is growing much faster than rates of growth in populatio ns aged 1865, and it is this group who are the major blood donors. And, despite a massive research effort to find alternatives, it remains true that in medicine there is no substitute for human blood. W hich one of the following conclusions can be drawn from the passage? A As the demand for blood has increased, so has the supply fallen.B The rate of growth of the blood-donor population has been slowing recently. C The increase in the rate of demand for blood is mainly due to population growth. D If more blood donors could be found, there would be no need to find a substitute for human blood. E The problem of the increase in demand for blood shows no sign of disappearing. In this type of question you are asked which conclusion follows from the information given. You need to consider each of the statements A to E, and to think about whether the information in the passage gives you good reasons to accept the statement. Identifying an Assumption 4Success in modern America is very much measured by the quantity of material possessions one has. A lack of material possessions means one is judged to be unsuccessful. Those people with few material possessions therefore must feel a strong sense of failure. W hich one of the following is an underlying assumption of the above argument? A Most modern Americans are successful. B Success can be precisely measured. C Over-emphasis on material possessions creates social problems. D Excessive desire for material possessions is psychologically damaging. E People in America with few material possessions want to be seen as successful.An assumption is something which is not stated in the argument, but which is taken for granted in ord er to draw the conclusion. So you need first to identify the conclusion of the argument. Then look for the reasoning it gives to support this conclusion, and think about any important point which is not actually stated in the reasoning. Assessing the Impact of Additional Evidence 5 Zoos are entirely unsuitable places for animals. People visit zoos to learn about animal behaviour but the animals they see are likely to be behaving in abnormal and neurotic ways because of the cramped and unnatural conditions n which they are kept. Zoos should be closed and the money saved should be used for the protection of natural habitats. W hich of the following, if true, would most weaken the above argument? A Humans living in cramped conditions can also become neurotic. B Schoolchildren can learn a great deal about animals from visiting zoos. C Many of the animals at present in zoos would not be capable of living in the wild. D The protection of natural habitats is very costly. E Zoos enable enda ngered species to s urvive by breeding them in captivity and then reintroducing them to the wild.This type of question will typically ask you to consider what would weaken or strengthen an argument. You need first to be clear about what the argument is trying to establish. Work out what the conclusion is, and then consider what effect each of the possible answers would have on the conclusion. Detecting Reasoning Errors 6 In order to succeed in academic examinations it is necessary to study. Therefore, if a student works hard in a particular subject, he or she shoul d do well when it comes to the examination. W hich of the following best describes the flaw in the argument? A It assumes that it is necessary to study in order to succeed.B It overestimates the value of studying in preparation for examinations. C It ignores the fact that some subjects are more academic than others. D It assumes that studying hard is a sufficient condition for academic success. E It ignores the fact that some students do not need to study very much in order to succeed. This type of question asks you to identify the flaw in the argument, which means that you must explain why the conclusion does not follow from the reasons which are given. So you need to be clear about what the conclusion is, and what reasons are meant to support it. Problem SolvingProblem Solving involves reasoning using numerical and spatial skills. Questions are of three kinds, each assessing a key aspect of insight into unfamiliar problems. The three kinds are Relevant Selection, Finding Procedures, and Identifying Similarity. Although most questions fall into one category some questions fit into more than one of the categories. Relevant Selection 7 The following table gives figures for the percentage growth per year of labour productivity per person per year in various countries during three periods. Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Japan 8. 5 3. 0 3. 2 France 5. 4 3. 0 2. 6 United Kingdom 3. 6 . 5 2. 4 Belgium 3. 3 2. 8 2. 3 Sweden 4. 1 1. 5 1. 8 Denmark 4. 3 2. 6 1. 7 Italy 6. 3 3. 0 1. 6 Netherlands 4. 8 2. 7 1. 6 Germany 4. 5 3. 1 1. 6 United States 2. 2 0. 0 0. 8 W hich country's percentage growth per year remained consistently greater than half of its Period 1 level in the following periods? A Belgium B Denmark C France D Germany E United Kingdom Very often a real world problem will be overloaded with information, much of which is unimportant. This kind of question demands Relevant Selection, in which the task is to select only that information which is necessary and helpful in finding a solution.Finding Procedures 8 A child's bus fare is cheaper than the adult fare but is more than half the adult fare. The total cost of a single journey for an adult and two children is â‚ ¬1. 20. Adult fares are all multiples of 10 cents. W hat is the adult fare? A 30 cents B 40 cents C 50 cents D 60 cents E 70 cents Sometimes you will find that even if you have selected all the relevant information, no solution presents itself. For this type of question, you have to find a method or procedure which you can use to generate a solution. Identifying Similarity 9In this type of question you will be presented with information and asked to identify the same information presented in a different way, or a situation in which different information has a similar structure. Section 2: Biology The chemistry of living things The bio-elements. The biological importance of weak interactions. Properties of water. Organic molecules in living organisms and their respective functions. The role of enzymes. The cell as the basis of life Cellular theory. Cell size. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The cell membrane and its functions. Cellular structures and their specific functions.Cell reproduction: mitosis and meiosis. Chromosomes. Animal tissues. Bioenergetics The energy currency of cells: ATP. Transporters of energy: NAD, FAD. Oxidationreduction reactions in living things. Photosynthesis. Glycolysi s. Aerobic respiration. Fermentation. Reproduction and Inheritance Life cycles. Sexual and asexual reproduction. Mendelian genetics. Basic laws and applications. Classical genetics: chromosome theory of inheritance; sex chromosomes, chromosome maps. Molecular genetics: DNA and genes, genetic code and its translation, protein synthesis. DNA of prokaryotes.The chromosome of eukaryotes. Regulation of gene expression. Human genetics: transmission of mono and multi-factorial features, hereditary diseases. New frontiers of genetics: recombinant DNA and its potential bio-technological applications. Inheritance and environment Mutations. Natural and artificial selection. Evolutionary theories. The genetic basis of evolution. Anatomy and Physiology of animals and humans Anatomy of the major organs and their functions and interactions. Homeostasis. Hormonal regulation. Nerve impulse. Transmission and processing of information.The immune response. Section 3: Chemistry The constitution of matte r States of matter; heterogeneous and homogeneous systems; compounds and elements. The structure of the atom Elementary particles, atomic number and mass number, isotopes, electronic structure of atoms of the elements. The periodic table of elements Groups and periods, transition elements, periodic properties of elements: atomic radius, ionization potential, electron affinity, metals and non-metals; relations between electronic structure, position in the periodic table and properties. The chemical bondIonic bond, covalent bond, bond polarity, electronegativity. Fundamentals of inorganic chemistry Nomenclature and main properties of inorganic compounds: oxides, hydroxides, acids, salts; position in the periodic table. Chemical reactions and stoichiometry Atomic and molecular weight, Avogadro constant, concept of the mole, conversion from grams to moles and vice versa, elementary stoichiometric calculations, balancing simple reactions, various types of chemical reactions. Solutions So lvent properties of water, solubility, the main ways of expressing the concentration of solutions.Oxidation and reduction Oxidation number, the concepts of oxidising and reducing agents. Acids and bases Concepts of acids and bases, acidity, neutrality and basicity of aqueous solutions, pH. Fundamentals of organic chemistry Bonds between carbon atoms; molecular, structural and displayed formulae; concept of isomers; aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons; functional groups: alcohols, ethers, amines, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amides. Section 4: Physics & Mathematics Physics MeasuresDirect and indirect measures, fundamental and derived quantities, physical dimensions of quantities, knowledge of the metric system and the CGS System of Units, Technical (or practical) (ST) and the International System (SI) of Units (names and relationships between fundamental and derived units), and multiples and submultiples (names and values). Kinematics Kinematic quantities, various types of motion with particular regard to uniform and uniformly accelerating rectilinear motion, uniform circular motion, harmonic motion (for all motion: definition and relationships between measures).Dynamics Vectors and operations on vectors. Forces, moments of forces about a point. Vector composition of forces. Definitions of mass and weight. Acceleration due to gravity. Density and specific gravity. Law of universal gravitation, 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws of motion. Work, kinetic energy, potential energy. Principle of conservation of energy. Fluid mechanics Pressure, and its units of measurement (not only in the SI system). Archimedes' principle. Pascal's principle. Stevino's law. Thermodynamics Thermometry and calorimetry. Specific heat, heat capacity.Mechanisms of heat propagation. Changes of state and latent heat. Ideal Gas Laws. First and second laws of thermodynamics. Electrostatics and electrodynamics Coulomb's law. Field and electric potential. Dielectric constant. C apacitors. Capacitors in series and in parallel. Direct current. Ohm's law. Electrical resistance and resistivity, electrical resistors in series and in parallel. Work, Power, Joule effect. Generators. Electromagnetic induction and alternating currents. Effects of electrical currents (thermal, chemical and magnetic). Mathematics Algebra and numerical setsNatural numbers, integers, rational and real numbers. Sorting and comparison, scales and scientific notation. Operations and their properties. Proportions and percentages. Powers with whole and rational exponents and their properties. Roots and their properties. Logarithms (base 10 and base e) and their properties. Elements of combinatorics. Algebraic and polynomial expressions. Special products th of binomials, n power of a binomial, factorisation of polynomials. Algebraic fractions. Algebraic equations and inequalities of the first and second order. Systems of equations. FunctionsBasic concepts of functions and their graphical rep resentations (domain, codomain, sign, maxima and minima, increasing and decreasing, etc. ). Elementary functions: whole and fractional algebraic functions, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions. Composite functions and inverse functions. Trigonometric equations and inequalities. Geometry Polygons and their properties. Circle and circumference. Measurement of length, area and volume. Isometries, similarities and equivalences in the plane. Geometric loci. Measure angles in degrees and radians. Sine, cosine, tangent of an angle and their significant values.Trigonometric formulas. Solving triangles. Cartesian reference system in a plane. Distance between two points and the midpoint of a segment. Equation of a line. Concepts of parallel and perpendicular. Distance of a point from a straight line. Equation of the circle, the parabola, hyperbola, ellipse and their representation in the Cartesian plane. Pythagorean theorem. Probability and Statistics Frequency distributions a nd their graphic representations. Concepts of random experiments and of events. Probability and frequency. Specimen Biology, Chemistry, Physics and MathematicsQuestions 10 The diagram below shows a family tree of a condition known as nail patella syndrome (NPS). 1 3 4 2 5 7 6 8 9 Key female without NPS male without NPS female with NPS male with NPS W hich of the following pairs of individuals must be heterozygous for NPS? A 1 and 5 B 2 and 6 C 3 and 7 D 4 and 8 E 5 and 9 11 An oxide of iron has the formula Fe3O4 and contains both Fe 2+ and Fe W hich one of the following is the fraction of iron ions that are in the Fe 3+ 2+ ions. state? 1 /4 A 1 /3 B 1 /2 C 2 /3 D 3 /4 E 12 Below are four statements about thermal (heat) energy. 1A substance can lose heat energy without its temperature falling. 2 Heat energy can pass through a vacuum. 3 Steam at 100 C has more heat energy than the same mass of boiling water o at 100 C W hen a container of water is cooled near the top, a convection cur rent is set up in the water. 4 o W hich statements are true? A 1, 2 and 3 B 2, 3 and 4 C 1, 2 and 4 D 1, 3 and 4 E all of the statements 13 The longest side of a right angled triangle is 6 One of the shorter sides is 3+2v5 units. W hat is the length of the third side? A B 2v3 70+24 5 C 12 D 3 ? v5 E 14 +7. 5v5 v5 units.